Underrepresentation of Women

As I reread chapter chapter 21 (I had read it in the earlier edition), I thought about the discussions I had in the Superintendency class on this very subject. One of my research topics for that class was about women in educational leadership roles. I have copied one of my papers below. Hopefully it will be insightful for you.


Women as a whole are underrepresented in leadership positions in the American public school systems. Although women are not a minority in the U.S. population, they are the majority, women experience prejudice and discrimination. They are considered minorities due to their lack of access to climb the ladder into leadership positions (McGee-Banks, 2000, p. 222). Since the 1970s, “researchers have attempted to account for the continued domination of the public school superintendency by men” (Skrla, Reyes, & Scheurich, 2000, p. 44).
Historically, women have had restricted choices in regards to careers. Education was one of the few careers, along with nursing, that were seen as acceptable for women to pursue. In 1905, women accounted for almost 98% of elementary school teachers and 61% of elementary school principals (McGee-Banks, 2000, p. 229). During the beginning of the 20th century, women were moving into educational leadership role, including the superintendency. By 1930, women made up 11% of the school systems’ superintendents.
However, this radically changed. “The 1950s and 1960s witnessed a revival of the prejudices against women that hindered their advancement into administration since the colonial period” (Brown, 2005, p. 128). Social and role theory help to explain this shift in status. Societal norms and cultural assumptions influence those responsible for hiring for these positions. Women are seen with an inferior status and subject to negative stereotypes (McGee-Banks, 2000). As men infiltrated the teaching field in order to dodge the draft, the number of women in education declined. Teaching was not seen as an appropriate position for males, unless they were seeking administrative positions, so many of these men climbed the ladder quickly. These administrative positions were viewed as inappropriate for women, but teaching positions were appropriate because the responsibilities of a teacher were tied into a woman’s responsibilities at home. Teachers, unlike administrators, had a shorter work day and a summer break allowing for their duties as a wife and mother to not be neglected (Kowalski & Brunner, 2005).
Over the years, the avenue women took into administration was typically through an elementary school principalship. In 1950, women occupied 56% of these positions with the number plummeting to 4% by 1960. The scarce 11% of superintendents who were women in the 1930s also watched their administrative positions dwindle due to the end of World War II. As the men returned from the war, they sought out jobs in educational leadership (McGee-Banks, 2000). By 1970, the percent of women in superintendency roles, declined to a mere 3%, and continued downward to 1% in 1980 (Kowalski & Brunner, 2005).
The percent of women in superintendent roles began to take an upward turn at the end of the 20th century. Women accounted for 14% of all superintendents by the turn of the century. Many believe it was efforts such as affirmative action that created the increase of women in leadership roles. Disappointingly, it was only of marginal help to women (McCarthy & Zent, 1981, as cited in McGee-Banks, 2000). Women have to prove to be superior to their male counterparts just to be considered for the position. School boards were one area that eventually helped women move up into higher leadership roles (Brown, 2005).
At the conception of school boards, all members were male. School board presidents were found in a survey by Phillip and Voorhees in 1986 to believe that women in leadership positions should not advance any further than the position of an elementary principal (as cited in McGee-Banks, 2000) However, Marietti and Stout (1994) cited that the characteristics of the school boards that are hiring women as superintendents differ than those hiring men.
School boards that hire women have been found to have a greater number of higher class members, members who have at least a college degree, and have a greater percentage of their members working in executive or management positions. More school boards that govern urban and suburban districts appoint a woman superintendent than ones governing rural districts (Marietti & Stout, 1994).
With women still being underrepresented in educational leadership positions, one might ask, what are the differences between the male and female superintendents in office recently. A study by the American Association of School Administrators found “noteworthy differences” (Kowalski & Brunner, 2005, p. 156). Women hold degrees in the educational field twice much as men. Women have fewer years of superintendency experience. Nearly 44% of women superintendents’ first position in education was an elementary teacher compared to only 17% of men.
With the increase in women superintendents and these different characteristics, “are there signs that the superintendency is becoming feminized?” (Kowalski & Brunner, 2005, p. 160). There are many parallels between the history of teaching and the superintendency. Although this question has not been answered, if the characteristics and attributes such as collaboration and a focus on instruction are being needed to perform the job of the superintendency, then these jobs may become more commonly filled by women just as teaching did.

Teaching all Students

Although this was a chapter of few words, they were heard loud and clear. As an assistant principal, one of my responsibilties is special education. Nothing irritates me more than to be told by a teacher, "Johnny needs to be tested. He can't do anything." This chapter by Levine, hits the nail on the head. I seriously doubt that Johnny is not capable of doing anything. In recent years, there were large quantities of children being tested and given a label to be served in special education. These children are still not able to perform, because the material they are being asked to learn is the exact same they could not do in the classroom, it is just at a lower level. Many of these children choose the vocational track when they get into high school.

Response to Intervention is a "new" strategy being used to help these children succeed. I said "new' because in most effective schools, teachers would already be providing interventions. These interventions help some children but what about the children like Michael?

This chapter is so accurate in the need for educators need to celebrate all kinds of minds and to "advocate for the elimination of testing practices that inflict needless damage and unfair humiliation on so many students" (p. 293).

My thought is...would it be possible to have this vocational track start in elementary school? In a way they are through the formation of magnet schools and other institutions. I would love to hear your thoughts.

Research interest

Over the past year and a half, my research interest has narrowed. I have always been interested in the education of disadvantaged students whether it be SES, race, ability, etc. As I have taken courses and read lots of research as well as scholarly articles, my interest began to focus on early childhood education of these disadvantaged children. This year, Head Start has opened a program at our school. It is serving many 3 and 4 year olds in our community who would otherwise not qualify for our Theraputic Behaviorial Services class (TBS) that serves children on medicaid that live in a home with malparenting or who did not score in the lowest 40 students on the Dial 3 assessment to be served in our half day class for 4 year olds.

It is so frustrating to see children being turned away from the opportunity to attend school and be able to narrow the achievement gap before they start Kindergarten. This leads me to my research agenda. I am researching the policies in the United States for preschool opportunities and its effects on the achievement gap of disadvantaged students.

Universal pre-kindergarten programs are available in Austraila and Great Britain. I am currently reviewing the vast amount to literature available on the outcomes of these programs. In the United States, there are very few opportunities for 4 year olds when it comes to enrolling in a quality preschool. However, some states are beginning to implement a universal preschool. Although there is access to preschool by all 4 year olds, all parents do not take advantage of it. Why not? That is a question I am looking into as well.

So what makes a quality preschool? What are the characteristics of the leadership?

I still have a lot to research and sift through, but it is a topic that I am passionate about and hope my research will make a difference in schools in the United States in the near future.

Please give me suggestions based on your experiences or interests as well!

Eight Roles of Symbolic Leaders

This chapter on the symbolic roles of leaders provided the concepts in a unique way, but a true way. As leaders we have many different roles in our schools. These roles are seen as symbolic by the constituents.

The first role is historian. As a new leader settles into a new role as principal of a school, being a historian should be their first task. As a historian, the leader should research events from the past and how they were handled, etc. It is important for a new leader to learn as much about the culture of the school as they can.

The second role is anthropological sleuth. This role is an extension of the historian. There is only so much a historian can find out. The anthropological sleuth must investigate deeper into the culture. This will include learning and understanding the rituals and ceremonies that are unspoken in the school. These are the relationships between the teachers and what happens in the teachers' lounge, workrooms, and the hallways. A lot can be learned through these discoveries.

The third role is visionary. All leaders have a vision. As a new leader, it is difficult to change the vision, so one must include all constituents to create a shared vision. The new leader can incorporate their new vision to build on the existing vision. It is important for a new leader to acknowledge and validate the hopes and dreams of the school and redefine them.

The fourth role is school leaders as symbols. Leaders are put under a microscope by all constituents, including teachers, parents, students, and community members. Leaders must ensure that they are portraying the image they intend to.

The fifth role is a school leader as a potter. School leaders have the ability to shape the culture of a school. The leader infuses the shared vision into the culture. They celebrate the important people in the school that are carrying out the vision. They continue and celebrate traditions. All of this is done with extreme care.

The sixth role is school leaders as poets. It is important that leaders communicate with their constituents in appropriate ways and levels. The leader would not send out the same memo talking about the NAEP and PASS assessments they sent to teachers out to the community. Communications needs to be easily understood by the intended audience. Communication includes written and nonverbal. Leaders should be sure that their communications exemplify the shared values and beliefs of the school.

The seventh role is school leaders as actors. On a day to day basis leaders take on many roles and have many scenes to act in. It is imperative that leaders take the roles seriously and portray the correct actions that are influenced by the shared visions and beliefs of the school.

The eighth role is school leaders as healers. This is, in my opinion, the most important role. By the leader acting as a healer, it shows the constituents that they understand the uncertainty with change. Change is all around us, especially in the education field. We are never stagnant. Whether it is a new principal in a school or an ending to a school year, the leader acting as a healer allows these events to happen effectively by utilizing the schools shared vision and beliefs.

Leadership styles and change

How do these 6 leadership styles help or hurt the change process?

• Coercive: This leadership style is one that I believe should be used sparingly. If this style is used too much, change will be virtually inpossible. When people are told to do something, they become resistant if they do not believe in the change.
• Authoritarian: This leadership style can help lead the way toward change, but I think it will be a slow change and one with many ups and downs.
• Affiliative: This leadership style will be very successful in implementing change. When there is a sense of harmony and community in a workplace, the ability to work together toward something becomes easier with less resistence and bumps in the road.
• Democratic: This leadership style will be the most successful, in my opinion, of implementing change. When people feel that they have a say so in what they are doing, they believe in the task. By having the people participate in the entire process, they have ownership, leading to buy in, and eventually to a smooth, successful road to change.
• Pacesetting: This leaderhsip style will cause an environment of anxiety and stress causing teachers to become less productive and more resistant.
• Coaching: This leadership style gives teachers the chance to take a risk while still being supported. Most teachers refrain from taking risks because they think they will not be supported if it fails. This leaderhsip style demonstrates the practice of growing and learning as teachers.

When would you use each of these styles in your work setting?

• Coercive: This is a leadership style that I would use with an incompetent teacher that I am having to work throught the improvement plan process. When it gets to this point, you are telling the teacher what they need to do in order to be offered a contract the following year. The teacher does not have a say so in the situation.
• Authoritarian: This is a leadership style that I would use with a timid faculty that are willing to change, but not sure how to go about it. This style would give them a path to follow.
• Affiliative: This is a leadership style that I would use, especially when there are many new members to the faculty. It is important to know and trust the people you work with. It is also beneficial to work with teachers who are willing to be a teamplayer.
• Democratic: This is a leaderhsip style that I would use when considering new changes (whether large or small). By allowing the teachers to come to the consensus together, they will have buy in and will work toward that common vision.
• Pacesetting: This is a leadership style that I am not sure I would use. I would like to see how others would use this.
• Coaching: This is a leadership style that I would use with those teachers that I want to be leaders in their grade level as well as the school.

The Authentic Leader...3 questions

How do I define my role as a leader?

I strongly believe that my role as a leader is to support my followers toward our common vision and goals. Teachers need to know that they are supported especially when they are embarking on new territory. They need to feel that they are not there alone and that it will take time to make the change. I strongly believe that schools should feel like a family. Research shows that classrooms that have strong senses of community have increased student achievement. This is true in schools too with regard to faculty and staff. Although there is a time and place for authoritian leadership, I believe that should be rare and used with caution. When children and adults alike do not feel threatened, they are able to have greater performance and are willing to take risks.

What inspires the best in staff?

I believe that staff are inspired by their ability to try new things and to take risks without the fear of being reprimanded. Although there is always thay sense of pressure with today's accountability system, teachers have the knowledge needed to educate and mold our children into productive citizens. They are inspired by their ability to make the decisions that are best their children. Of course, we all are inspired by praise. Staff need to be praised for their hard work, from the custodians, secretaries, teacher, to the assistant principal. When the hard work of people is recognized they are inspired and motivated to continue the hard work and make it even better.

What are my strengths?

• Ability to recognize my areas of weakness
• Compassion for working with children
• Good listener
• Willingness to change a plan based on others input
• Team player
• Hardworker

Trustworthy Leadership Matrix

I believe that it takes all of the variables in the Trustworthy Leadership matrix to elicit change in a school. As we have all mentioned, trust seem to be the common factor necessary for change. Therefore, I would build my research study around this variable and how it interacts with the functions of leadership and the constituencies of the schools. The study would be both qualitative (interviews, observations, surveys, etc.) and quantitative (test scores, etc.).
I would choose moral leadership as the framework through which to examine school change. "Leadership that counts, in the end, is the kind that touches people differently. It taps their emotions, appeals to their values, and responds to their connections with other people. It is a morally based leadership..." (Sergiovanni, p. 76). The facets of trust in the matrix relates to all the functions of leadership as well as all the constituencies of the school. There are many forms of leadership. Moral leadership if not the only form that creates a shift in schools. However, I think it is the one that is most in line with the 3 components of leadership outlined in the matrix.