Underrepresentation of Women

As I reread chapter chapter 21 (I had read it in the earlier edition), I thought about the discussions I had in the Superintendency class on this very subject. One of my research topics for that class was about women in educational leadership roles. I have copied one of my papers below. Hopefully it will be insightful for you.


Women as a whole are underrepresented in leadership positions in the American public school systems. Although women are not a minority in the U.S. population, they are the majority, women experience prejudice and discrimination. They are considered minorities due to their lack of access to climb the ladder into leadership positions (McGee-Banks, 2000, p. 222). Since the 1970s, “researchers have attempted to account for the continued domination of the public school superintendency by men” (Skrla, Reyes, & Scheurich, 2000, p. 44).
Historically, women have had restricted choices in regards to careers. Education was one of the few careers, along with nursing, that were seen as acceptable for women to pursue. In 1905, women accounted for almost 98% of elementary school teachers and 61% of elementary school principals (McGee-Banks, 2000, p. 229). During the beginning of the 20th century, women were moving into educational leadership role, including the superintendency. By 1930, women made up 11% of the school systems’ superintendents.
However, this radically changed. “The 1950s and 1960s witnessed a revival of the prejudices against women that hindered their advancement into administration since the colonial period” (Brown, 2005, p. 128). Social and role theory help to explain this shift in status. Societal norms and cultural assumptions influence those responsible for hiring for these positions. Women are seen with an inferior status and subject to negative stereotypes (McGee-Banks, 2000). As men infiltrated the teaching field in order to dodge the draft, the number of women in education declined. Teaching was not seen as an appropriate position for males, unless they were seeking administrative positions, so many of these men climbed the ladder quickly. These administrative positions were viewed as inappropriate for women, but teaching positions were appropriate because the responsibilities of a teacher were tied into a woman’s responsibilities at home. Teachers, unlike administrators, had a shorter work day and a summer break allowing for their duties as a wife and mother to not be neglected (Kowalski & Brunner, 2005).
Over the years, the avenue women took into administration was typically through an elementary school principalship. In 1950, women occupied 56% of these positions with the number plummeting to 4% by 1960. The scarce 11% of superintendents who were women in the 1930s also watched their administrative positions dwindle due to the end of World War II. As the men returned from the war, they sought out jobs in educational leadership (McGee-Banks, 2000). By 1970, the percent of women in superintendency roles, declined to a mere 3%, and continued downward to 1% in 1980 (Kowalski & Brunner, 2005).
The percent of women in superintendent roles began to take an upward turn at the end of the 20th century. Women accounted for 14% of all superintendents by the turn of the century. Many believe it was efforts such as affirmative action that created the increase of women in leadership roles. Disappointingly, it was only of marginal help to women (McCarthy & Zent, 1981, as cited in McGee-Banks, 2000). Women have to prove to be superior to their male counterparts just to be considered for the position. School boards were one area that eventually helped women move up into higher leadership roles (Brown, 2005).
At the conception of school boards, all members were male. School board presidents were found in a survey by Phillip and Voorhees in 1986 to believe that women in leadership positions should not advance any further than the position of an elementary principal (as cited in McGee-Banks, 2000) However, Marietti and Stout (1994) cited that the characteristics of the school boards that are hiring women as superintendents differ than those hiring men.
School boards that hire women have been found to have a greater number of higher class members, members who have at least a college degree, and have a greater percentage of their members working in executive or management positions. More school boards that govern urban and suburban districts appoint a woman superintendent than ones governing rural districts (Marietti & Stout, 1994).
With women still being underrepresented in educational leadership positions, one might ask, what are the differences between the male and female superintendents in office recently. A study by the American Association of School Administrators found “noteworthy differences” (Kowalski & Brunner, 2005, p. 156). Women hold degrees in the educational field twice much as men. Women have fewer years of superintendency experience. Nearly 44% of women superintendents’ first position in education was an elementary teacher compared to only 17% of men.
With the increase in women superintendents and these different characteristics, “are there signs that the superintendency is becoming feminized?” (Kowalski & Brunner, 2005, p. 160). There are many parallels between the history of teaching and the superintendency. Although this question has not been answered, if the characteristics and attributes such as collaboration and a focus on instruction are being needed to perform the job of the superintendency, then these jobs may become more commonly filled by women just as teaching did.

Teaching all Students

Although this was a chapter of few words, they were heard loud and clear. As an assistant principal, one of my responsibilties is special education. Nothing irritates me more than to be told by a teacher, "Johnny needs to be tested. He can't do anything." This chapter by Levine, hits the nail on the head. I seriously doubt that Johnny is not capable of doing anything. In recent years, there were large quantities of children being tested and given a label to be served in special education. These children are still not able to perform, because the material they are being asked to learn is the exact same they could not do in the classroom, it is just at a lower level. Many of these children choose the vocational track when they get into high school.

Response to Intervention is a "new" strategy being used to help these children succeed. I said "new' because in most effective schools, teachers would already be providing interventions. These interventions help some children but what about the children like Michael?

This chapter is so accurate in the need for educators need to celebrate all kinds of minds and to "advocate for the elimination of testing practices that inflict needless damage and unfair humiliation on so many students" (p. 293).

My thought is...would it be possible to have this vocational track start in elementary school? In a way they are through the formation of magnet schools and other institutions. I would love to hear your thoughts.

Research interest

Over the past year and a half, my research interest has narrowed. I have always been interested in the education of disadvantaged students whether it be SES, race, ability, etc. As I have taken courses and read lots of research as well as scholarly articles, my interest began to focus on early childhood education of these disadvantaged children. This year, Head Start has opened a program at our school. It is serving many 3 and 4 year olds in our community who would otherwise not qualify for our Theraputic Behaviorial Services class (TBS) that serves children on medicaid that live in a home with malparenting or who did not score in the lowest 40 students on the Dial 3 assessment to be served in our half day class for 4 year olds.

It is so frustrating to see children being turned away from the opportunity to attend school and be able to narrow the achievement gap before they start Kindergarten. This leads me to my research agenda. I am researching the policies in the United States for preschool opportunities and its effects on the achievement gap of disadvantaged students.

Universal pre-kindergarten programs are available in Austraila and Great Britain. I am currently reviewing the vast amount to literature available on the outcomes of these programs. In the United States, there are very few opportunities for 4 year olds when it comes to enrolling in a quality preschool. However, some states are beginning to implement a universal preschool. Although there is access to preschool by all 4 year olds, all parents do not take advantage of it. Why not? That is a question I am looking into as well.

So what makes a quality preschool? What are the characteristics of the leadership?

I still have a lot to research and sift through, but it is a topic that I am passionate about and hope my research will make a difference in schools in the United States in the near future.

Please give me suggestions based on your experiences or interests as well!